Makes a great tea which you will able to stir with your Larix laricina #2 ID twig.
12/18/2009
12/09/2009
ID#2-09
A tree with a linkage to number one which was of course Ginkgo biloba!
12/03/2009
ID#1-09
ID #1 This tree represents such beauty and history that anyone with an appreciation for its leaves would love to enjoy more than a few days of their landscape covered with its golden leaves! And of course my favorite tree must be #1.
10/26/2009
TREES...BAC ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES 2009 TREES IN THE LANDSCAPE BAC
Ashley Kalemjian
"Twig and Leaf Phyllotaxy," Carol Levine. Newsletter of the Connecticut Botanical Society, Fall 2000 (Vol 28, No. 2 & 3)
This article opens with a quote from Leonardo DaVinci, who described how leaf arrangement maximizes the exposure of each leaf to moisture, sunlight, & air. After defining opposite & whorled arrangement, the author describes how alternate arrangements are in fact the growth of leaves in a spiral pattern along a twig. These are equiangular or logarithmic spirals, as named by Jakob Bernoulli in the 17th century when exploring the relationship between the Golden Mean & spirals found in nature. Alternate arrangement can be ranked based upon the number of leaves positioned along this spiral. The ratios formed by these rankings are one of many examples of the Fibonacci sequence in nature. The author also notes that examining phyllotaxy can help identify woody plants in the field, particularly when the leaves are off of the trees. Thinking of leaf arrangements occuring in logarithmic spirals makes me look at trees and envision whole new sets of three-dimensional lines and patterns that I had never considered before.
"Chlorophyll Power," Michael Moyer. Scientific American, September 2009
This article discussed how the process of photosynthesis, specifically the actions of the light-gathering "antennae" of cells, could take advantage of quantum systems, potentially enabling new methods of capturing light from the sun. Quantum systems can occur in multiple states at the same time, and these states can positively and negatively interfere with each other. There is potential for energy derived from photosynthesis to react with itself, as found in new studies of the "antennae" of certain green bacteria and of marine algae. The quantum states of these systems are surprisingly long-lasting if undisturbed and indicate unusual quantum actions of living organisms. Further study could lead to the possibility of developing "bioquantum" solar cells that could be superior to the photovoltaics we use today. While I still do not (and may never) fully understand quantum anything, this article was a fascinating example of the seemingly limitless capacity for humans to learn about and utilize natural systems as our ability to examine them more closely is improved.
"Tree Vandalism: Some Solutions," Marvin Black. Journal of Arboriculture 4(5): May 1978
Written by the City Arborist of Seattle at the time of publication, this article points first to the of human history of vandalism, written about as early as ancient Greece. In an effort to address the causes of tree vandalism and apathy towards trying to thwart it, two Washington state groups held a series of workshops. Within two years the city of Seattle reduced its vandalism-based tree loss rate by half. First, the city stopped staking trees with crossbar (whose position on the tree made it easy to snap the trees) and instead used steel bars placed higher on the tree. They also tube-shaped mesh cages around some small trees as a deterrent. In Seattle, no link was found between socioeconomic demographics and tree vandalism in different neighborhoods. Based on findings that most tree vandalism occured by young men after bars close or against trees with no houses nearby, the city began to consider tree size and breakability in vulnerable areas. They found it crucial to consider the wishes of the neighborhood residents (ie. not planting trees that will block views) and to avoid "us vs.them" thinking (good planters, bad vandals). The more community members were involved in planting choices and action, they better the trees in that community fared. It would be interesting to know how outdated some of these physical methods to deter vandalism are and to know how well the social & phsychological components have stood the test of time.
"Restoring Manhattan As It Once Was," Anne Raver. The New York Times, September 2, 2009
"The Manhatta Project" is a 2,200- square foot plot of ground in New York City being transformed into a native woodland garden composed of 2,000 plants found in 17th-century New York. Designed by landscape architect Daryl Morrison and planted with the help of NYU students, the garden offers a sense of what Manhattan looked like before colonized by Europeans and before non-native species were introduced. Trees included in the planting design include linden, Japanese pagoda tree, Japanese maple, and American beech. The seedlings are small but seem to be doing well. This garden was made possible because NYU's 2008 graduating class chose to use their legacy gift funds for this project rather than for plasma televisions for the NYU gym. This article made me think of controversial movements by some San Franciscans to restore the wonderful Golden Gate Park back to sand dunes (via the removal of thousands of trees) and the trickiness of restoring land to its "original" state.
'The Phyllotaxis of the Date Palm (phoenix dactylifera I)," Michel Ferry. Research Centre on Date Palm and Arid Land Farming System (Spain; date of publication NA)
Finding information about the phyllotaxis of date palms has been difficult and confusing. To better understand it, the author studied 2,000 date palms with the intention of determining the rank of the leaves of each palm by relating the age of leaf to the other leaves. Methods to determine rank involved examining the common characteristic of the palms' chronological curve, a perfect curve that can be drawn from the youngest leaf to the oldest in the form of a conical spiral. These curves were found to be right or left-handed in equal frequency among the trees in the study. The leaves of the interior spire in the central crown of the palms shift as they grow, so examining them helps determine their rank as related to age. Traits of leaf morphology show date palm leaves exhibit a winding and deviating foliage direction that increases with age. This article was translated from Spanish so is slightly harder than usual to understand, although the photographs & diagrams helped a good deal. I enjoyed learning more about date palms because they have come up in a recent class as a tree frequently used in the garden design of the ancient Egyptians and Mespotamians.
"Linnean Binomial Nomenclature: Systematics, Taxonomy, Biological Classification & Scientific Name," Tami Port. Microbiology, Sept. 3, 2007
This article explains that plant and animal classification was developed based upon the relationships between organisms in reference to their physical characteristics, and how levels of classification move from from the general to the increasingly specific. In the 1700s, Swedish physician and botanist Carl Linnaeus devised a system of naming plants and animals with a double (or binomial) name and thus established modern systematics. Advances in our knowledge of evolution means this binomial system is not static but changes based on our growing understanding of the relationships among living things. The two names represent the organism's genus & the species and the universality of these names allows for communication across linguistic & cultural borders.
A new study at Purdue University suggests that a hybrid of American and Chinese chestnut trees could reduce carbon levels in the atmosphere. This tree grows faster than other chestnuts and retains carbon longer. In addition, it is disease-resistant, so the chestnut blight that began destroying chestnuts in the early 1900s would hopefully be kept at bay. The study compared American chestnut with other trees in a region of Wisconsin where the chestnuts had not been lost to blight because of their distance from eastern forests. American chestnut was found to have three times the biomass of the other trees, meaning it can store larger amounts of carbon for longer periods of time. The director of the study plans to look at how chestnuts hold carbon beneath the ground's surface and to test chestnut growth on additional sites. There is a great series of books I love called Foxfire that was put together by a teacher & his students in 1970s Appalachia where the students learned the folkways of people living in the region and there were lots of tools, crafts, and even riddles that originated out of the chestnut's prominence in that region, as well as a study done by the students on the effect of blight on the Appalachian people.
"Photosynthetic Characteristics of Olive Tree Bark," Manolis Filippou, Costas Fasseas, George Karabourniotis. Tree Physiology 27Grown since ancient times in the Mediterranean region, the bark of the olive tree is smooth when young & gnarled when aged. A Greek study found that the photosynthetic activity of olive trees was high even in advanced age. Photosynthesis has been found to occur in numerous parts of the tree, including the petioles, roots & stems, both on herbaceous stems & woody stems without stomata. The study found that stomata were present only during the primary growth period of the stem on those parts of olive tree bark that are exposed to the sun. Although the young leaves are prone to photooxidative damage, trichomes on young olive stems may protect the stems' photosynthetic capabilities. All the attention given to the healthful properties of olives in recent years made me wonder about any correlation between photosynthesis, antioxidants, & human dietary health.
"Life's A Beech- & Then You Die (insect & fungus infestation of US Forests)" Jay Cammermeyer. American Forests, July 1, 2003
Amid the destruction wrought by the tiny yellow beech scale, which came to America from Europe in the late 1800s, there seem to be a number of new disease-resistant beech growing in the old stands of diseased trees. There are three distinct disease phases: the Advancing Front, wherein the scales multiply among groups of mature beeches, followed by the Killing Front, when lots of beeches die. Last is the Aftermath Zone, which characterizes the beech situation of contemporary New England, where diseased trees coexist with residual trees and young beech stands. The sprouting of new growth from the roots of dead trees may seem hopeful but the sprouts are genetically prone to the disease as well. To address this, the US Forest Service advocates education about symptoms of the disease, the removal of damaged trees, & deer control to help protect the young beech. They suggest sparing beech with smooth bark which, interestingly, tends to be more resistant to the beech scale. I grew up climbing around on a huge beech tree in our neighbors' yard, which was later lost to disease.
"Apical Bud Formation & Dormancy Induction in Poplar," Plant Cell, August 2007
The development of buds in autumn marks the beginning of winter dormancy in woody perrennials. A 6-week study of metabolite profiles in poplars found that a number of genes specific to inducing dormancy were present in all the poplars, suggesting that different plant organs share a similar molecular regulation system connected to bud development and dormancy. The metabolite profiles studied corresponded to the onset of dormancy, developing cold tolerance, and storage compounds, which will undoubtedly change somewhat as environmental conditions shift in the future. This study intended to look at how trees will adapt genetically to climate change, beyond the visible effects of climate change that we typically see or hear about.
"Tree Wounds: Response of Trees & What You Can Do," Wayne Clatterbuck. University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture
This article begins with explaining that wound response is a two-phase process of compartmentalization & the formation of barrier zones. Rather than heal damaged or infected tissue, trees seal off these damaged areas & form new tissue. A callus forms along the perimeter of the wound, and this new wood growth "compartmentalizes" the decay or infection to prevent its spread. A tree will try to contain damage by creating physical and chemical "barriers" in the wood surrounding a wound. Wounds should ideally be oval-shaped with any ragged bark removed. Wound dressings can promote fungus and feed pathogens as well as inhibit the growth of callus tissue. When pruning, clean, even, stubless cuts should be made outside of the branch collar. Pruning is best done in the winter because of lower infection rates due to cold, among other reasons. The author has based much of the article's content on the groundbreaking findings of Alex Shigo.
"Structural Features Related to Tree Crotch Strength," Robert W. Farrell. Department of Forestry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute. March 25, 2003
The research for this graduate thesis was conducted with the aim of reducing tree failure by finding common strength characteristics of red maple, callery pear, and sawtooth oak. To test the strength of the three species individually and collectively, the author examined branch and trunk diameters, angles of the branches, length of crotches, & branch bark ridges. The trees' breaking strength was evaluated based on a formula for bending stress. Crotch strength, according to the author's research, is associated with the ratio of branch diameter over crotch width: the smaller the branch diameter in relation to the trunk, the stronger the crotch. Farrell points out that there are different forms of tree failure, often a combination of structural and enviromental factors. Trees' means of resisting failure include branch collars, which have a high density of decay-resisting material, and crotches limit the transport of water and pathogens between branch and trunk. These features can serve to protect the trunk at the site of branch-trunk unions but not at the junctions of codominant stems. A crotch is the junction of two expanding cylinders, and as Shigo found, yearly addition of trunk and branch tissue around the crotch strengthens their attachment. When the trunk is larger than the branch, the trunk's annual growth more deeply encloses the branch base. In most trees, narrow branch angles are associated with weekness, but the author cites research finding that the size of branch relation to trunk is a significant strength and health indicator. The results of this study were consistent among the three species. For optimal strength, branches should be less than 2/3 the size of their trunk.
"Principles of Proper Tree Pruning," Jeremy Logan. New Life Journal, June 2009
Noting the importance of compartmentalization of decay in tree (known by the acronym of CODIT), the author sets out guidelines for pruning. The larger a tree's wound, the longer it takes to be sealed, so Logan advises the removal of smaller branches if possible. While dormancy is recognized as the best time to prune, dead, damaged or diseased branches should be removed imediately. Lateral-reduction cuts should be used to prevent the extreme responses sometimes seen when trees are topped, which are the result of the removal of apical buds spurring dormant buds into action in an effort to replace the missing treetop. When pruning most trees, no more than 15-20% of leaf-bearing branches should be removed. On old, ornamental, or stressed trees, an even lower pecentage (5-10%) should not be exceeded. With such an abundance of clear information about proper practices in pruning, it seems strange that instances of bad pruning are still so common.
"Running Wolf Says Sitters Cut Tree Branches," Tamara Bartlett. The Daily Californian, July 26, 2007
"University Chainsaws Isolate Tree-Sitters," Richard Brenneman. The Berkeley Daily Planet, August 21, 2008
These articles date from the long legal battle between UC Berkeley and determined tree lovers & preservationists which ended in favor of the university's removal of trees on a campus hillside to make way for the construction of a new buiding. Protesters inhabited several of the trees for nearly two years trying to prevent to school from removing the trees in order to build a new athletic facility. The university had offered to plant three trees (two young and one mature) for each of the 43 trees slated to be removed from the site, but this did not appease the protesters. In 2007, the tree-sitters were accused of tree vandalism when they cut off the top of a redwood and removed dead branches from several other trees, but responded that they were heeding the advice of a professional arborist and were in fact pruning the trees in an effort to preserve them. Police alleged that this pruning was actually intended to clear space for the tree-sitters' platforms. Both the Campus Landscape Architect and the UC Berkeley Grounds Services Manager agreed that topping the tree was a poor choice as it could lead to weakly-attached branches. The following year, twenty-two lower redwood branches and four live oak branches were removed at the order of the police to decrease the mobility of the protesters in those trees and to stop more protesters from joining them in the trees. Soon thereafter, the University was granted the right to remove the occupied trees and proceed with construction. This incident speaks to the intense emotions related to trees and is an example of how pruning can be political.
"It's Pruning Time for Apple Trees," Mother Earth News Editors. Mother Earth News
Optimizing fruit production of apple trees requires regular pruning. This article points out that pruning in winter allows better visibility of a tree's structure and that pruning in spring can cause the tree to lose too much sap. Adventitious growth, which is common on apple trees, can happen in an effort to replace lost branches and usually develops near vascular tissue so this sucker growth can attach to xylem and phloem. The adventious growth should be removed using the same kinds of pruning cuts that would be used on other branches. Branches that grow back toward the center of the tree as well as forks at the ends of branches should also be removed. This article offers practical instruction for the pruning of apple trees with concise explanations.
"Allelopathy in Trees," Dr. Kim D. Coder, Daniel B. Warnell School of Forest Resources, University of Georgia, April 1999
Allelopathy is a means of ecological interference which results from an organism releasing chemicals which affect other organisms, either actively or passively. The study of allelopathy is called allelochemics, and while it was traditionally viewed as a means of one organism combatting another, more recent research suggests that there can be beneficial effects as well. Each tree exists in the context of numerous other living things and therefore must "interfere" with them in order to best function. This article differentiates between competition, in which resources are managed or removed in order to perpetuate life, and allelopathy, which alters life through the addition of substances into the surrounding environment. In trees, allelopathic compounds originate within the tree and emerge via erosion, exuding, evaporation, or decay. They can effect virtually every aspect of the tree's life, from its growth to its ability to deal with stress and infection. The effects of allelopathy are most profound on newly introduced neighboring organisms, with the impact lessening over time. The allelopathic materials can be found in cells or sugar molecules and once they emerge from the tree they can be be transformed for use by the other organisms. Trees with high allelopathic activity can effectively alter the soil that surrounds them, creating a protective zone from other organisms' own allelopathic activities.
"Microclimate in Forest Ecoystem & Landscape Ecology: Variations in climate can be used to monitor & repair the effects of different management regimes," Chen, Jiquan; Saunders, Sari C.; Crow, Thomas R.; Naiman, Robert J.; Brosofske, Kimberley D.; Mroz, Glenn D.; Brookshire, Brian L.; Franklin, Jerry F. Bioscience, April 1, 1999
Microclimate is determined by elements including temperature, light, moisture, and wind. Microclimates are highly responsive to changes in the landscape as a result of human activity and thus are good indicators of the effects of changes in structural elements on different ecosystems. There is a great deal of variability in the relationships between microclimate and different biological activities. A group of scientists studied the relation of microclimate to forest management practices in patches of several US forests. They found that the movement of wildlife, rates of ecosystem actions such as decomposition, and the growth of vegetation were all altered in connection to increased levels of radiation from human technologies and practices such as clearcutting. There is much still unknown about microclimates and their sensitivity means they can offer detailed knowledge about forests; this article makes the case for their continued study.
"Wanted: Trees for Urban Landscapes." M2 Presswire, October 2007
Focusing on the work of John Hammond, a scientist in the Agricultural Research Service, this article discusses the challenge of finding trees to meet the numerous criteria of desirable urban trees. The challenges include ability to withstand environmental extremes, interface well with traffic and pedestrians, and aesthetic appeal. Hammond's Maryland-based "Power Trees Project" works on the federal, state, and local levels to find trees that best suit a potential site. Among the best street trees they recommend for a wide variety of climates are red maple, crape myrtle, flowering cherry, elm, and crab apple. The team is also examining the benefits of container versus in-ground planting methods. Initial results suggest that trees planted in containers are preferable in terms of the survival of urban streets.
"Nursery Production Alternatives for Reduction or Elimination of Circling Tree Roots," Bonnie Lee Appleton. Journal of Arboriculture 19(6): November 1993
Girdling roots are tree roots that circle around each other and have the capacity to damage or even kill the tree. This is a problem common to container planting. As they are twisted and bound, the vascular system and transport of nutrients and water are compromised. Cutting of circular roots has become common practice to prevent this. Several other methods have been developed to address circling roots, both below and above-ground. Grow bags, which are fabric in-gound containers, have had mixed results, with some trees responding better than others. There is the "pot-in-pot" system, wherein the pot containing the tree is set into a larger in-ground pot, and there are perforated plastic containers, whose holes allow for the growth of small roots. Alternative production methods above-ground include variations on traditional container design, a "low-profile container," whose lower height mimics nature, and porous foam "soil socks" to line wire containers. Interestingly, containers lined with copper cause the copper to be absorbed by the tree which regulates growth and spurs branching, a method that seemed promising at the time of publication. It would be good to know the longer-term view of these alternatives now that 15 years have passed since this was written, as well as what additional alternatives have been developed.
"Wire Baskets- Current Products & Their Handling at Planting," Bonnie L. Appleton & Scharlene A. Floyd. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry (date unavailable)
There is limited research related to the wire basket planting controversy and this article is based on surveys of wire basket producers, landscape professionals, and arborists. Wire baskets were developed to work in tandem with new hydraulic digging machines and became popular because they reportedly reduced damage, improved the tree's chances of survival, and held market appeal. Most of those surveyed agreed upon the advantages of wire baskets to protect root balls as they are transported, shipped, and stored, but there is disagreement about what to do with the baskets at the time of planting. Those opposed to their removal at planting cite potential root ball damage or the risk of unstable trees. Many arborists, meanwhile, think the baskets can play a role in tree failure by cutting or girdling the stems or roots, restricting roots, and inhibiting the tree's vascular function. The wire endures underground for up to several decades, so this damage usually occurs over time. Wire baskets also pose a risk to humans and landscaping equipment. While plastic containers and breakable plastic baskets exist as alternatives, at the time of publication there were no real economically viable options. It seems that there must be an economical and environmentally sound way to dealing with the basket issue, and considering the scale of the issue it seems that more money should be put into research and development for simple, sensible alternatives.
"How Trees Get High: and the limit on their height is set by the force that holds water together," Adam Summers. Natural History, March 1, 2005
This article was inspired by the author's curiosity about how trees grow so tall and how they stop growing. Xylem carries water upward through transpiration, a passive process that occurs when capillary action works in tandem with evaporation from the leaves. Xylem is composed of tube-shaped material, and at the tops of the tubes, water that has been carried upward then evaporates into spaces inside the tree's leaves, where it is released through the leaves' pores. The electrostatic effects of capillary action draw more water up the xylem and into the leaves. The water molecules are attracted to each other, joining along the water column and drawing more water from the ground to the tree top. Water moves freely within the xylem, supported by the strength of the joined molecules, which results in very high water tension that can break if it becomes too high. In this case, the xylem could be blocked by an air bubble. Plant physiologists tested the theory that water transport determines a tree's height by gauging xylem pressure and the trees' rates of photosynthesis. They found that at the tops of the trees, the rate of photosynthesis was lowest while the water column's tension was highest. Water column tension can also inhibit osmosis, a key part of photosynthesis. High tension toward the tops of trees would limit the water available to the leaves for photosynthesis, thus preventing a tree's further growth after that point.
"Maybe Only God Can Make a Tree, But Only People Can Put a Price On It," David K. Randall. The New York Times, April 18, 2007
There has always been difficulty in assigning monetary value to trees, but the Parks Department in NYC has taken several steps to do just this. First, they conducted a 2-year tree census of every tree in the city (nearly 600,000 trees). These were entered into a computer program called Stratum, which computes the local property value impact, carbon dioxide absorption, and shade of each tree. Taking into account the cost of installation and maintenance, the annual benefit was found to be $122 million. Each dollar spent on a tree in NY, then, has a return of $5.60 in benefits. The highest-value trees were generally found in lower-density areas, due to their greater environmental benefits. The study's findings offer compelling data for proposals for future planting.
"The Natural Defences of Trees Against Injury & Disease," Danny Rioux. Branching Out, Number 16, 2004
This Canadian article describes the CODIT model and mentions that some studies suggest that compartmentalization is initialized by the presence of air in woody tissues rather than by the presence of micro-organisms. To protect water-filled tissue, trees can wall off nearby tissues that air has entered. At the time of publication, there was also research underway on the role hormones play in compartmentalization. Several examples are given of CODIT in action: in jack pines infected by scleroderris canker, the fungus is stopped by barriers created through compartmentalization. Balsam poplar compartmentalizes the entire area around the fungus that causes Dutch elm disease while in American elms wall 4 is commonly missing, allowing the fungus to spread. Maples are known for there ability to wall off taphole wounds, but on occasion the wounds can breach the compartmentalization sections that frequently form in response to tapholes made earlier.
"Napa's Unusual Cork Harvest," Jim Gordon. Wines & Vines, August 1, 2007
Portugese cork forestry was the focus of an educational seminar held in Napa, the hub of American wine production, by the company Cork Supply USA. Each Portugese cork harvest produces 3,000-5,000 wine corks. Traditionally, cork bark is stripped when a tree is 20 years old, then every 9 years thereafter as the new bark has grown during that window. With this cycle, most cork trees will live to at least 100 years and often well beyond. The second harvest provides the cork whose quality is high enough for use in wine bottles (the first harvest yields gnarled, highly porous bark that is used in other cork products). At the seminar, Portugese cork strippers used their machetes to demonstrate the stripping method, peeling big half-cylinder pieces of bark from 30-year old trees. Other aspects of cork forestry were discussed at the seminar as well, including the use of cork as a sustainable building material and cork-growing areas role as wildlife habitats.
"A Lost Art," Seth Shteir. National Parks Conservation Association Magazine, Fall 2007
In Nevada's Great Basin National Park there are aspen trees with bark carvings that date back nearly 200 years. These were made predominantly by sheepherders, who often came from South and Central America as well as from the Basque region of Europe. Through these dendroglyphs, the sheepherders had a means of communicating amid the lonely, rugged terrain. The dendroglyphs range from details of meeting plans to entertaining female forms. Drawings were often made competitively, rendering the same image on a tree that had been done by a previous sheepherder. The dendroglyphs provide a historical window into the lives of a group of people about whom little is known. Several arborglyph experts have been trying to document the glyphs and encourage the park's visitors to do the same, as the risk of fire and aspens' lifespan of 80-100 years means that these unique images will soon be gone forever.
CATHEY PORTRIE
Aging and Rejuvenation in Trees
Peter Del Tredici
Arnoldia, Vol. 59, No. 4, 1999-2000
Within any given species, the slowest growing individuals are the longest-lived. The biggest trees in the forest are rarely the oldest. A study (1988) by Loehle found the more energy (carbohydrate reserves) a plant invests in defense mechanisms (chemical and structural defenses) as opposed to vegetative growth, the longer it will live. Horticulturalists have also exploited the natural capacity of trees to rejuvenate themselves in cultivated trees; the environmental stress that slows physiological aging is intensive pruning. Bonsai techniques tend to suspend physiological aging indefinitely. Pruning brings about a measure of physiological rejuvenation by: 1. Inducing growth of ontogenetically younger meristems 2. Shortening internal transportation pathsways of water and nutrients 3. Reestablishing balance between shoot and root activity when roots are somewhat limited. Trees, unlike people, can be simultaneously embryonic and senile. Plants have meristematic tissue that remains embryonic throughout the lifespan of the tree. Cathey
A Diversity of Hollies
Polly Hill
Arnoldia, Volume 47, No. 1, 1987
Hollies have strong healing powers when damaged. Because Martha’s Vineyard had a history of wind and ice storms, holly became the first tree that Polly Hill chose to collect and raise at her summer home, “Barnard’s Inn Farm”. Today, this is the site of the arboretum known as Polly Hill, a non-profit landmark established by the author, who died in 2007. She began her collection of holly in 1962 and at the time of this writing, had established 130 cultivars of the genus IIex. She grew most of her plants from seeds .
One plant, Ilex aquifolium, was started from the berries of a Christmas wreath she had received in the mail from Brownell’s Holly farm in Oregon. She received cuttings from all over the country and was successful in raising some the plants to 5-6 feet at the time the article was written. Her pioneering efforts established that holly were tolerant of the windy and icy conditions of the Martha’s Vineyard winters. She determined that some holly seed will germinate and the plants will grow well only if obtained from a similar climate. She obtained berries for I. deciduata from Semmes, Alabama and from Anna, Illinois. The Alabama seeds germinated, but the plants did not grow well in the summer and died back in the winter. The seeds from Illinois produced long-lived trees. Holly is an evergreen trees. The native, Ilex opaca, was difficult to find in nurseries. Polly grew I. opaca ‘Jersey Knight” and rated it as one of the most superior trees in her collection. She also established that winterberry, Ilex verticulata,
does well on MVI and all cultivars are worth pursuing – for the red, orange and yellow berries, and the y are stoloniferous, which can be useful for hedging. Cathey
Replacing the American Elm: Twelve Stately Trees
Gary Koller
Arnoldia, Volume 43, No. 2, 1982
Dutch elm disease continues to infect the American elm, but the vase-shape but sparse branching and the full arching canopy of the elm can be said to represent quintessential New England. The green canopy ceiling encloses and invites one in. It has been likened to a cathedral and the space it encloses thought of as spiritually uplifting. Koller advises in this 1982 article to continue planting the trees, but not in the monoculture planting of the past. Plant singly because he has observed that the plants that have survived have often been alone or are found in isolated locations. The Dutch elm disease is caused by a fungus, spread by the elm bark beetle. It spreads via root grafts , not above ground via insect vectors. He has proposed some trees that can have a similar effect in making a ceiling canopy, and they are listed with their pros and cons in this article.
Acer saccharinum Silver maple
This tree comes closest in habit to the American elm in its tall, narrow, vase-shape. A.saccharinum are fast-growers and the wood, called brittle, compares to the American elm. If the laciniate leaf form is used, they are similar visually and texturally. They are not good street trees because their shallow roots cause pavement problems.
Acer saccarum Sugar maple
These are fast growers and will need to have their lower branches removed to replicate the branching shape. The crown structure varies among trees, so a tree with a broad, rounded, regular branched crown is the only choice. These are not good street trees because they cannot tolerate dry soil or salt.
Koller says this is the most beautiful of the native American trees.
Aesculus glabra Ohio buckeye
This tree has round crown and strong downward curving branches. It can be pruned to a vase shape. The drawback to this tree are the nuts. It also only grows to 50 feet.
Betula nigra River birch
With maturity, the river birch becomes vase-like and the leaves are similar in texture to the American elm. It grows to 70 feet and is useful to produce trees with a variety of heights. It tolerates heat and poor soil.
Fraxinus americana White ash
This tree has a broad rounded crown supported by few large branches. It is a great street tree and tolerant of many adverse conditions. It does seed freely so staminate, non-fruiting clones are available.
Fraxinus pennsylvanica Green ash is similar, but only grows to 50 feet, so is useful in a smaller space and on the street.
Gymnocladus dioica Kentucky coffee tree
This tree has an open crown and though different in form from the elm, it can be trained to create an unbranched stem and can create a lofty spatial enclosure, similar to an elm. The lima bean like pod that creates litteris a disadvantage.
Juglans nigra Black walnut
The lower branches of this tree will have to be pruned off to create a similar shape to the elm. The nuts are messy. The tree has a beautiful form when mature.
Liriodendron tulipifera Tulip poplar
This is a rapid grower and gets well over 100 feet. The trees that develop a large rounded crown are most elm-like.This is not a street tree.
Quercus rubra Red oak
This tree is excellent for avenue planting but must be pruned to achieve a vaselike effect. It is a wider spreading tree but gives a stately effect and is similar in scale to the elm. It also has very hardy bark, making it more resistant to disease from injury and is a good street tree. Quercus velutina Eastern black oak is similar.
Tilia petiolaris Pendant silver linden
This tree has a broad crown, but must be carefully pruned to achieve an elm-like shape. The foliage is outstanding and the leaves have a tendency to rustle, producing a silvery effect. The leaves may become unsightly.
Ulmus parvifolia Chinese elm
This is an exceptionally graceful elm, but will only grow to 50 feet in the Northeast. It has glossy, fine textured foliage and beautiful lacey exfoliating bark. It is resistant to Dutch elm disease.
Zelkova serrata Japanese zelkova
It is elm-like in basic form but not elm-like in character. It grows only to 60 feet and the ascending branches are many, making it difficult to prune into a vase shape. It is only moderately resistant to Dutch elm disease.
All of the above trees are dissimilar to the elm in the branching form and must be pruned to achieve a vaselike shape. A straight, tall, unbranched bole is necessary for the effect, requiring much after care. Cathey
Allelopathy – How Plants Suppress Other Plants
James Ferguson, Publication #HS944, July, 2003
Research applications based on plants that demonstrate allelopathic qualities may be investigated based on the plant’s origin, chemical production, and persistence into the environment over time to determine how the plant’s chemicals affect other plant species. Allelochemicals may provide templates for developing synthetic herbicides. ‘Additionally, applying allelopathic compounds before, along with or after synthetic herbicides are applied, may be effective overall. Some of the allelopathic plants that may or are being investigated are black walnut (juglone) – corn yield has been impacted, lantana has had suppressing effect on milkweed vine, sour orange has inhibited seed germination and root growth of pigweed and Bermuda grass, red maple, swamp chestnut, oak, sweet bay and red cedar wood extracts have had a suppressing effect on wheat and tree of heaven (ailanthone) is a post-emergent non-selective herbicide similar to glyphosate. Cathey
Red Bay Ambrosia Beetle
Dr. Greg Hodges, FDACS, DPI, July 30, 2009
Persea borbonia, Southern red bay, is a Native American tree used medicinally and loved for its evergreen, aromatic, leathery leaves and red bark. In the coastal southeast, it is being obliterated by the red bay ambrosia beetle, Xyleborus glabratus. The beetle drills shot-holes in the bark and xylem (which are barely noticeable, but for the sawdust on the ground), and the fungus, Raffaelea laurelensis, quickly infects the tree. The fungus feeds on the sapwood and the beetles feed on the fungus. The adult female carries the spores of the fungus. The fungus hyphea block sapwood water and nutrient movement. The beetle is most attracted to the redbay laurel, but it could attack other related families, such as sassafras, Lindera benzoin and the South Florida avocado crop. It is not known at present if any fungicides will kill the fungus. It is recommended that the tree be removed and residue be chipped and left on property. The tree logs should be burned, but since most areas have a burning ordinance, this is unlikely. The range of redbay is Southern Delaware, coastal Virginia, eastern Texas, coastal North and South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Louisiana, Alabama and Mississippi. The beetle is most active from May through October. Cathey
The Power of Trees, The Illinois Steward, Vol. 7, Issue 4, Winter, 1999 by Tina Prow
NOAA Grant brings 1.3 million to Brewster Herring Run
Each spring, the alewives return to their ancestral home at Stoney Brook to spawn. The site in Orleans, Ma.,
Stoney Brook, once the fishing grounds of the Sauquatuckets, was purchased by Colonial Governor Prence in 1653. In 1663, a large (200+ foot) waterfall was dammed and powered, and used as a grist mill. In the late 1800's, it was converted to a falling mill and then a textile mill (called Factory Village) - the first textile mill in the country.
A 1.3 million grant fund, appropriated by Congress under the Economic Recovery Act, was awarded this spring. A large area of coastal wetland will be restored with the help of grant monies from NOOA. When the culvert is enlarged, more trees on the southern side of Route 6A will be impacted with the restiration of the salt marsh which previously existed. Cape Cod Times, June 30, 2009
The Power of Trees, The Illinois Steward, Vol. 7, Issue 4, Winter, 1999 by Tina Prow
This article reports research done by Frances Kuo and Bill Sullivan of the ACES (Univ. of Ill. College of Agriculture, Consumer and Environmental Sciences) team. The study looked at how people are affected by green areas in their environment and how they can be involved in making their environment better. Research methodology was by interview of residents from 28 identical public housing buildings, with varying degrees of trees/plants surrounding them. Questions were designed to evaluate aspects of the residents' daily functioning and what affect the trees around the buildings had on their behavior. The results indicated that people with trees around their buildings knew and socialized with their neighbors from their building more and and reported a stronger sense of community. They also felt safer than the people in the buildings without trees! Photo simulations were done to determine which landscape designs those interviewed would like to see implemented and it was clear that most, if not all, preferred to live in housing developments with trees. The more densely planted an area, the higher the reported feeling that they would feel safe there.As a result of this study, Chicago officials spent $10 million to plant 20000 trees; the decision was influenced by the results of the study!
PHYLLOTAXY AND FIBONACCI by Ken Gohring and Jim Smith, NativeSCAPE, the newsletter of the Georgia Native Plant Society, Jan. 2000.
90% of all plants exhibit patterns involving Fibonacci numbers, including spirals, seedheads and leaves. Leonardo de Vinci discovered this math sequence - 1,1,2,3,5,8,13... where each succeeding term of the sequence is the sum of the two previous numbers. According to this article, the connection between this math concept and plants is due to the spiral nature of plant growth. The pitch and number of leaves in each turn on a twig constitutes spiral phyllotaxy. Alternate leaves are usually arranged in a spiral around a twig. To determine this, select 2 leaves that are arranged one directly above the other. If they are counted by ascending the spiral from the lower leaf around, the same species will have the same number of leaves. Elm and birch have 1/2 arrangement and alder has 1/3. This is said to occur in nature to ensure that each leaf gets the maximum exposure to light, casting the least shadow on other leaves. This also gives the best possible exposure to falling rain and the rain will be directed to flow down the leaf to the stem and roots.TWIG AND LEAF PHYLLOTAXY by Carol Levine, Newsletter of the Connecticut Botanical Society, Vol. 28, No. 2 and 3, Fall, 2000
There is a direct relationship between the ranking of a leaf and the Fibonnacci numbers. When alternatedly arranged, ranking describes how a leave is arranged on a twig. A two-ranked species is determined as 1/2. 1 describes how many revolutions around the twig; 2 means 2 leaves can be counted in one revolution (not counting first leaf). The third leave is directly over the first leave and the fourth is above the second. If a line is drawn spirally from leaf 1 through 2 to 3, the line will have circled the twig once. Examples are grasses, sycamore, birch, elm, linden. Three-ranked, 1/3, describes the leaves arranged equally spaced and three around. Sedge, false hellebore and some beech are in this group. 2/5 describes two circles around a twig encountering 5 leaves. Tulip tree, sweetgum, oak, cherry, walnut and hickory are in this group. 3/8 are holly, bayberry and sweet fern. 5/13 are willow and almond. 1,1,2,3,5,8,13 - each added to the next and the sequence is Fibonacci. If you divide a Fibonacci number by the next highest number, it will be .0618034 times as large as the number it follows - said to be the perfect proportion. Pinecones and pineapples have the "golden proportion."
TOP 10 MYTHS OF TREE CARE by the International Society of Arborculture, Woodnotes Quarterly, Spring, 2000
A list of helpful information to guide the novice in correct maintenance practices involving trees. Staking trees tend to hinder rather than help a tree to develop an extensive root system. In addition, staking will inevitably damage the tree if the stake is not removed in a timely way. Girdling is also common - when the staking materials becomes imbedded in the tree trunk - often around the circumference. Trees also need a full crown to produce much-needed food and plant hormones that induce root growth. Trees should not be pruned back heavily when planted. Pruning should never be done with flush cuts; removing the branch collar will create a larger wound and may encourage decay. Topping trees is a practice that is not recommended because not only does the tree look ugly, it stimulates growth below the cut, which are weaker. When a tree has lost a significant part of its root system, the crown should not be cut back.
THE STRUCTURE AND REPRODUCTION OF GYMNOSPERMS by Dennis Holley, Botany.com, August 16, 2009
Gymnosperms are vascular seed plants that produce seeds within hard cones. They are represented in less than 1000 species. The structure of gymnosperms types are 1. Coniferophyta (Conifers) 2. Cycadophyta (Cycads) 3. Ginkgophyta (Ginkgo) and 4. Gnetophyta (Gnetophytes) Gymnosperms reproduce when pollen grains produced in the male cones fall on the open scales of the female cone. The pollen grain forms a tube that grows down into the ovule toward the egg. when the pollen tube touches the egg, sperm cells in the tube fuse with and fertilizes the egg. Seeds resulting from this fertilization mature and the female cone opens and seeds are dropped and dispersed. The most interesting thing about this article was the statement that cycads are highly toxic and contain neurotoxins and carcingenic compounds!!! I will have to check this out.
Beech Trees. Arnold Arboretum. Bulletin of Popular Information. July 2, 1925
Fagus sylvatica, the European species, grows faster and is handsomer than the American species. Unfortunately, there is no record of the date of introduction into the United States but it was more than one hundred years ago. The earliest connection was in a nursery catalog of William Prince of Flushing, NY. The best specimens in New England were planted by David Sears in the Longwood Mall near the Sears Church in Brookline, Massachusetts sometime before 1832. The trunk girths are now 7'2" to 10' 10". There is a purple beech planted in the Arboretum. Originally, this variety was found growing naturally in a forest in central Europe and the first account of it was published in 1680. The copper beech (var. cuprea) is probably a seedling of the purple beech and has paler leaves than that tree.How Plants Are Named. Botany Readings. J. P. Braselton, PhD (Used in course at Ohio University. Modified by author from the text The World of Plants. (no longer in print)
Taxonomy is the division of biology used to name organisms and plants into categories. Common names such as a potato can become confusing when plants have some similar characteristics but need a name to differentiate them. Carolus Linnaeus, an 18th century Swedish botanist, contributed a two word method for naming plants and other organisms called binomial nomenclature. Each species is designated by 2 Latinzed words - the binomial name. The binomial for any oak will have the word Quercus; the specific epithet for white oak is Quercus alba.
Paloverde Bark November 10, 2005 The Firefly Forest T. Beth Kinsey
Parkinsonia microphylla (Paloverde tree) produces green chlorophyllus, photosynthetic bark. These rare desert trees, which abisicise their leaves during dry spells, rely on teir bark for sugar production. They produce cork (phellogen) cells in their bark but also produce phelloderm cells in their bark which contais chloroplast. CO2 is not absorbed as quickly because phelloderm is compact and there is less free surface in the cell walls. The green bark recaptures and converts bark back to CHO. Bark photosynthesis requires less water but is less efficeint and produces less food for growing trees than leaf photosynthesis so they tend to grow very slowly.
Taxus baccata Wikipedia
European yew is a medium sized gymnosperm and grows 30-90 feet. With 1/2" to 1 1/2"-long, 1/8"-wide, flat dark green leaves arranged spirally on the stem, the leaf base are twisted to align the leaves in 2 flat row on either side of the stem. The seed cones contain a single seed surrounded by a modified scale which develops into a soft,berry-like, red-colored aril. The aril itself is sweet and gelatinous - the rest of the tree is toxic.(Taxane is an alkaloid) Yews are long-lived and slow-growing.. The Fortingall Yew in Perthshire, Scotland is 200 years old. The chemotherpy drug, Paclitaxel(Taxol) is derived from the leaves of the European Yew; they can be converted to Taxol by chemical manipulation. In 1021, Taxus baccata was first used as a cardiac remedy; it is used in stint production today by Boston Scientfic Corporation.
Medicinal Plants in Danger. Medicinal Plants R. H. Sheldon, Jan 20, 2009
The Center For Biological Diversity reports that 150 prescription drugs are based on natual sources (75% plants, 18% fungi, 5% vetebrate , 3% snakes and frogs) because of habitiat destruction. Based on current extinction rates, the planet may be losing at least one potential drug every 2 years. Biopiracy or selling of traditional remedies are sold at huge profits, patented by private companies - with little money returned to communites of origin.. The Botanical Gardens Conservation International is trying to protect this from continuing and is monitoring habitats and reporting to government agencies.
Does Included Bark Reduce the Strength of Codominant Stems? E. Thomas Smiley, Journal of Horticulture, 29 (2), 2003.
One of the most common locations for the aboveground portion of a tree to fail is at the junction of 2 or more codominant stems. This study sought to answer the question "Does included bark reduce the strength of the union?" 84 codominant stems were removed from 26 felled maples. The crotches were split apart and the bark compared between the trees with and without included bark. It was found that all of the tree stems broke consistently and the stems separated evenly, but there was a difference in the amount of force needed to split the trees. The codominant stems with included bark were weaker, especially in the trees with smaller diameter stems. 4" diameter stem trees are 20% weaker when they have included bark and 10" diameter trees with included bark are 14% weaker.
Slippery Elm- Evidence-based Herbal Medicine. Fact Sheet #17, Virginia Tech, January, 2001
Slippery elm, Ulmus rubra, is a native tree found from North Florida and Southwest Texas to Maine and throughout the Midwest. The bark is collected in large quantities especially in Michigan where many trees that are fully stripped of their bark have died. It takes 10 years for trees to reach an age of harvest, so deforestation of slippery elms is becoming a reality. The bark is collected in the spring or fall and the coarse outer bark is removed to expose the inner layer, which is dried. It is used as a salve for skin ailments and a brew for gastrointestinal ailments It is an herbal expectorant and used also to induce easy labor. It is safe for use and approved by the FDA as and he demulcent. It contans oligomeric procyanidins, is antiseptic and anti-allergenic. The use of Althaea officinalis as a substitute demulcent is being advocated, to protect the destruction of existing trees. It is recommended that the harvesting of this bark be confined to the bark of branches that need pruning.
Tree Anatomy : Wound Response. Erv Evans, North Carolina State University, 2000.
Trees naturally respond to wounds and pruning cuts. The response is the formation of a barrier to compartmentalize the injured area and seal it off from organisms that can cause decay. The injured portion of the tree no longer has storage capacity or functional ability. The first "wall" of defense occurs after injury, by "plugging" the vascular system vertically so pathogens cannot move past the wounded area. A second "wall" forms at the outer edge of the growth ring to give some resistance and deter decay spread. A third defense, a radial wall, (the ray cells that cut across the annual rings) provides resistance to lateral spread by a physical barrier and released chemicals. The final defense, in the form of cambrium growth, separates the wood present at the time of injury from new wood formed as the tree grows. Callus tissue eventually forms over the injury and should cover it by growing over the dead wood. Some tree species are more effective in their ability to activate the walls of defense.
trees that are slower to respond become more open to pathogens.
When a tree is injured, scientists Eric Kramer and Jennifer Normanly found that cells diverge around the wounded area, allowing a continued supply of nutrients and H2O to the areas above and below the wound. The hormone, auxin, responsible for cell growth and development, helps in reorientation of cells as the tree heals. Levels of auxin were found to be high above the wound and lower below the wound, signalling for the cells to form conducting tubes and divert around the wound instead of into the tree. The auxin levels may be responsible for organizing the phloem cells to carry sugar around and past the wound and the xylem cells to carry water.
Trust Targets Gas Leaks That Kill Trees. USA Today March 26, 2007
Bob Ackley, a 25-year veteran of testing natural gas lines for leaks, believes that thousands of trees are being damaged in Massachusetts and many 60-70 year-old trees are dying. Ackley says that natural gas contaminates the soil with methane, causing methane-consuming bacteria to multiply and remove oxygen from the soil. The O2-CO2 exchange is disrupted and the roots are damaged. Slowly, the tree will die. Ackley and attorney Jan Van Schlichtman (groundwater contamination case in Woburn and portrayed in the movie A Civil Action), set up Massachusetts Public Shade Tree Trust to help communities to stop leaks and recover costs. They also hired an arborist, Carl Cathcart, to verify the possible damage. Gas companies dispute the claims and state that they comply with Federal regulations in detecting and repairing leaks. They say tree-killing leaks are generally not a big problem. I was intrigued by this article but can find no follow-up to the claim of 2007!
The Potential Use of Mycorrhiza in In Improving Grass Performance. USDA, NRCS, TN-Plant Materials-79, June, 2008
This article evaluated the effects of using mycorrhiza inoculation in the growing medium used to propagate different conservation plants. Grass seed was coated with an arbuscular mycorrhiza fungus, Glomus intraradices. It was hypothesized that this would improve plant performance. Two species, purple needlegrass, Nasseila pulchra, and 'Berber' orchard grass, Dactylis glomerata.Various growth stages were evaluated, from seed sprouting to thickness of the grass, measured at intervals over a period of two months. No benefit was found when the mycorrhiza-coated seeds were used; the 'Berber' seed did poorly at different stages of growth.
"Smell has some cities ripping out gingkoes." AP, Oct. 5, 2009
Renowned for its hardiness and beauty, Iowa City officials have determined that the smell of the seed shell of the gingko is too offensive to continue use in the landscape. The gingko seed is slippery and messy -a hazard, according to officials. The city has decided to remove all female trees. Some cities (Bloomington, Minn. and Lexington, Ky.) have baned planting female gingkoes. The butyric acid covering the seeds is the same chemical found in rancid butter. Male gingko trees occasionally can undergo a metamorphosis and begin to drop smelly seeds. (According to this article it is one in one hundred). It was also noted that on at least 3 university campuses, students have enjoyed the gingkoes and will live with the issues they present.
Container types. Edward F. Gilman, PhD, Professor, Environmental Horticulture Department, IFAS, Univ. of FL, Sept. 3, 2009 at http://hort.ufl.edu/woody
This article reviewed various plant container types seen in nurseries and the materials they are made from. Despite the container type, roots begin circling the container edge if left in the container too long. Trees grown in containers must be root pruned to remove circling roots each time the tree is potted to a larger pot. If not, the severe root defects will make the tree a cull.
He found that tree performance was not significantly different, based on container type used following installation, if irrigation was provided regularly. One research study concluded that if there is limited irrigation after planting, the post-transplant survival of live oak trees grown with copper on the inside surface were more stressed than those grown in conventional containers. Conventional container trees have roots on the outer edge of the root ball, so they have more contact with moist landscape soil, possibly allowing more water uptake. The rootmaker container, patented by Carl Whitcomb, was reviewed by this author; "Air root pruning almost eliminates circling roots and according to manufacturers, creates a denser root ball in some species. (Whitcomb and Williams, 1985). Gilman notes that the lack of circling roots reduces the likelihood of roots that strangle the trunk, but research shows no increase in root density or better success with transplanting - whne the rootmaker is used.
The Tree.igator. Business Journal of North Carolina, January, 2000
Scott Cissel is the President of Spectrum products, which markets the "tree irrigator". Originally marketed as the tree.igator, its name was found to be more marketable as the treegator (could he be thinking that the play on the UF gators would provide name recognition - it worked for me! - after all, that is the same gator used by UF) The treegator looks like a heavy-duty garbage bag. It wraps around a tree and is zipped tight. Water drips through the hole in the bottom, soaking the roots. it provides 20 gallons of water, and will water a 1-8" caliper tree over a 6-10 hour period. Scott's dad, W. Lambert Cissel, devised and patented the treegator in 1989, after trying to keep tree roots moist in the summer in Maryland, where installed trees would do poorly because the soil was clay. Scott's dad gave Scott a business loan and the marketing ideaand he used direct marketing to sell treegators. At first, in 1991, the business was slow because Scott, newly graduated form college, lacked contacts and experience. The product was also recalled because the material lost its shape. In 1994, the treegator started to be produced out of 2-ply plastic and this was a success. Spectrum products in 1996 was profitable. In 2009, the company added Treegator Pro, a 15 gallon irrigator for trees and shrubs. It looks like an inflatable tire. ***The treegator website has 2 studies, both confused, that claim trees fare better with the gator, but the research cannot be conclusive because of conflicting variables in each study...
Planting Balled and Burlapped or Field-Grown Trees Edward Gilman, PhD, Professor of Environmental Horticulture, IFAS, UF at http://hort.ufl.edu/woody
Synthetic burlap does not decompose, so it is best to remove it when planting trees; roots that grow through may become girdled. In moist climates (Eastern US), natural burlap will decompose and can remain. In drier climates (less than 20" annual precipitation), complete removal is recommended - if this is not possible, the burlap should be removed from the top of the ball.
Wire baskets are an effective way of ensuring that roots inside the root ball remain intact with soil. There is no research that indicates that the baskets should be removed; some research says that tree roots engulf the wire. Some horticulturalists recommend removing the top 12-18" of the wire basket or the entire basket. Gilman says that the trees with the wire baskets require staking.
Grading Shade Trees pp. 1-24. Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. DIP. Charles Bronson, Commissioner
Since most trees have a life expectancy of many
years, it is important to plant good quality trees. The
quality or grade of a tree at planting can have a large
impact on longevity in the landscape.
Large-maturing trees which are allowed to develop
a double or multiple trunk should not be planted
Except for small-maturing trees normally grown with
multiple trunks. Nursery trees should
have one trunk up through the center to the top of the
tree. Branch diameter should not be
larger than 2/3 the diameter of the trunk measured
directly above the branch. There should be no flush
cuts anywhere on the tree and no open injuries on the
trunk or major branches. The crown should be full of
foliage and show little, if any, evidence of chlorosis,
necrosis, disease or insect infestation. These trees will require less pruning
after planting, and they will establish more quickly.
These have been properly trained and pruned in the
nursery to develop a structure which will be resistant
to damage from winds and other outside forces. Most
tree maintenance budgets have not been developed to
allow for pruning a tree after planting, so it makes
sense to start with a tree which is healthy and well
formed.
Watering Trees and Shrubs |
Most trees and shrubs have their important feeder root in the top twelve to eighteen inches of the soil. In a site having a well-drained soil and adequate fertility, a plant will establish quickly and have a significant buffer to drying out of the root zone. However, the plant will need supplemental watering for 3 or 4 years following planting. After establishment, a tree or shrub will only need water during an extended drought period. |
It is always important that a plant enters the fall and winter season with ample moisture in its system. The period from mid-August through September is most important in preparing the plant for winter. Once winter arrives and the ground freezes, water cannot be replaced in the plant when it is lost through the leaves from sun and wind.
When you water, be sure to water long and deeply enough to encourage deep root growth. Constant shallow watering, as for lawns, permits "lazy" shallow roots that are not prepared for drought periods. One inch of water will normally penetrate to a 6-12 inch depth. So during the growing season, landscape plants should receive at least one inch of rain or supplemental watering, per week. For small to medium sized trees this would equal 7 to 10 gallons of water. If using a hose, water slowly to avoid runoff. Remember that 60% of a tree's roots are beyond the drip line. Remember to water beyond the end of the branches to reach these roots. Move the hose around the tree area during the soaking period. When using a sprinkler, measure the amount of water applied by placing a pan or coffee can nearby and water until an inch of water has been collected. Mulching 2 or 3 inches deep with some organic material such as wood chips or compost will help retain moisture from rain or water.
Cornell Cooperative Extension October, 2001
www.counties.cce.cornell.edu
Nick Bernat
This site talks very briefly about the development of tree crotches and the eco systems they create for microbial life forms it includes images of crotches that collect water creating the pool ecosystems were life can thrive. There is a small amount written about the trees that the author has found these pools the most common to as well as images of some of the life he has noted.
This is a instructional guide to pruning using the
Planting,
Establishment,
Growth,
Structure,
Maturity,
Over maturity,
Replacement
(PEGSMOR) pruning system it shows detailed pictures of Excurrent Trees and Decurrent Trees and gives a example of what steps are to be taken and when for the healthy development of a deciduous tree. It lists and shows pictures of when the best time to prune is as well as what each step of pruning entails. There is an image of a tree pruned since planting versus one that has not been pruned which shows the benefits for the structure and health of the tree that pruning affords. There is a section that discusses the pruning of older trees to maintain healthy growth. There is detailed explanation of terminology and a large amount of very useful and applicable information on the management of trees in an urban setting
http://www.springsgov.com/units/parksrec/treepruning.pdf
This site starts out by discussing the different kinds of wound that a tree can get, the different parts of the bark, and how it heals. It then says how trees heal differently from people and animals. In that unlike animals that regenerate and replace damaged cells trees simply isolate and encapsulate damage. Wounds also expose the inside of the tree to organisms, primarily bacteria and fungi that may infect and cause discoloration and decay. Trees can not heal decayed wood. It then discusses the process a tree goes thru in healing according to Shigo compartmentalization and the development of barrier zones. It later discusses the treatment of wounds on trees and the crazy things people do to try and fix them such as painting and cavity filling. It also discusses the best way to treat wounds as well as the best time to prune.
http://www.utextension.utk.edu/publications/spfiles/SP683.pdf
Allelopathy is a biological phenomenon that is characteristic of some plants, algae, bacteria, coral and fungi by which they produce certain biochemical’s that influence the growth and development of other organisms. This site offers a basic introduction to allelopathy both positive and negative allelopathy are briefly discussed as well as speculation that some invasive plants have been very successful because they have this characteristic. This article discusses the fact that allelopathy is something that is gaining a lot of interest in the scientific community. The site then goes on to mention the origin of the word and the history. The term allelopathy, from the Greek words allelo and pathy (meaning mutual harm or suffering). Before the term allelopathy was used, people observed the negative effects that one plant could have on another. Theophrastus noticed the inhibitory effects of pigweed on alfalfa. In China around the first century A.D. Yang and Tang described 267 plants that had pesticide abilities, including those with allelopathic effects. The site then talks about some of the plants that have this characteristic and its potential for agriculture as natural herbicides. As well as mentioning that it is a very important part of forest ecology.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allelopathy
- Roots grow around basket wire, forming a complete union of bark and wood tissue; roots are not permanently girdled.
- Root tissue formed after growing over wire permits translocation.- There appears to be no injury to, or break in, the root periderm that would allow pathogens to enter a tree.
- Basket wire remains intact in soil for many years, and wire strength diminishes slowly.
- Removing wire baskets at planting time is not necessary to assure growth and survival of large tree roots. However, you should remove any rope across the top of the ball, and bend back or remove basket loops.
This site contains the opinion of Dr. Glen P. Lumis professor of landscape horticulture in the department of horticultural science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario. About the effects of wire baskets being left on trees when they are planted. There is numerous examples of studies that he has done on the subject as well as some mention of people who are against this practice and have found that they feel that baskets left on are detrimental to the health of the tree. The conclusions that Dr. Glen P. Lumis has come to are as follows.
- Roots grow around basket wire, forming a complete union of bark and wood tissue; roots are not permanently girdled.
- Root tissue formed after growing over wire permits translocation.
- There appears to be no injury to, or break in, the root periderm that would allow pathogens to enter a tree.
- Basket wire remains intact in soil for many years, and wire strength diminishes slowly.
- Removing wire baskets at planting time is not necessary to assure growth and survival of large tree roots. However, you should remove any rope across the top of the ball, and bend back or remove basket loops. - Using a correctly sized basket for each root ball is imperative. The top horizontal wire should be at least several inches above the top of the soil ball.
http://www.marshalltrees.com/articles.asp?p=2&id=4&cid=0
This article discusses the different uses of custructural soil, its water absorption rate and it also answers many common question such as price how it will were over time and many others. Cu structural soil was created so the soil compaction needed for paving could be achieved and still allow tree roots to easily penetrate the area. It does this by combining crushed stone approximately one inch in diameter, with no finer particles, loam to clay loam that contained at least 20% clay to maximize water and nutrient holding capacity. The proportion of soil to stone is approximately 80% stone to 20% soil by dry weight, with a small amount of hydrogel aiding in the uniform blending of the two materials. This proportion ensured that each stone touched another stone, creating a rigid lattice or skeleton, while the soil almost filled the large pore spaces that were created. This way, when compacted, the load would be born from stone to stone, and the soil in between the stones would remain uncompacted. Along with information about this product and answers to common questions there are pictures and information about various sites around Ithaca n y.
http://www.hort.cornell.edu/uhi/outreach/csc/city_trees.pdf
This is a site that is designed to help people recognize seven main types of tree defects: dead wood, cracks, weak branch unions, decay, cankers, root problems, and poor tree architecture. It then describes when people should fix a problem and when it can be left for future correction and assessments. It lets people know how to recognize each one of the seven defects and gives information on how to safely correct them the easiest being to move the potential target. It also shows some pictures to help people understand what it describes.
http://www.pueblo.gsa.gov/cic_text/housing/treedefect/hazards.htm
This is a site that discusses three methods for pruning over grown fruit trees that have been neglected for a long time these trees can be found in many yards in New England as well as any were with agricultural roots. The site lists three methods for pruning. The first is to keep the height the same and do mostly thinning cuts removing crossing branches, sucker growth, and thinning to allow better light penetration and reduce the amount of fruit. The second method is to over three years reduce the height of the tree assessing and picking the height that you would like the tree to be then reducing by one third of the total to be removed every year. The third is to greatly reduce the tree cutting back all branches except one this method is not very recommended by the authors. All three methods call for pruning in early April and thinning of sucker growth. The site say to paint to prevent sun burn something that is very disputed other than this and the third method this site gives great basics for maximizing existing trees that may be neglected or even a nuisance to the owner.
http://homeorchard.ucdavis.edu/8058.pdf
This site discusses three of the dominant types of micorizea in forests, particularyily in giant red wood forests. It gives a description of each of the three different types discussing, their fruit bodies , growth habits, relationships to trees and were they are likely found. This site is a great way to start to understand the whole picture of a codependent environment. It discusses experiments to test tree growth with and without inoculation and found that giant red wood seedlings inoculated often grew three times the amount of those not. The site also talks about the importance of animals in the forest as well and their relationship to the fungi and trees.
http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/documents/psw_gtr151/psw_gtr151_12_molina.pdf
This site discusses briefly the allelopathic ability of mangrove trees as well as giving some info on the nature of this plant. It then goes on to suggest that mangroves allelopathic compounds may be useful in suppressing the growth of tumors, parasites and bacterial or fungal infections in people. It gives a list of some of the folk remedies that people use the plant for already. The article concludes by saying there is a lot of hope for medicinal uses but further research is needed.
http://www.wholehealth.com/resources/Medicinal_Properties_of_M.pdf
why leaves change color. .
this site explains some of the basic science behind the changing fall leaves.the chemical compoundsChlorophyll, Carotenoids, Anthocyanins,and there importance in the coloring of plants. The weather and how it effects the vibrence of the colors is discussed, explaining the conditions witch are the best for the fall colors. The length of night and how the shortening days trigger the trees change, is talked about as well. The site also explains why trees drop there leaves. It also discusses were you can see the foliage s well as what colors are on different tree speicies.
bioligy-online.com. .
this site goes into scientific explanations of leaf types, there molecular structure how they work,leaf arrangments , phyllotaxy, the parts of the leaves, there importance to people. The language is very scientific but not to difficult to understand.after reading it though it gives good examples of the different types of leaves as well as the biology of leaves and their workings.
wikipedia. .
General information about neem Azadirachta indica a tree native to to India, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Pakistan growing in tropical and semi tropical areas. The leaves of this tree have a great medicinal value wich is briefly looked at as well as a description of the leaves and other attribute of the tree.
sacred woods . .
this sight gives brief information about certain plants there historical value, both medicinally and religiously. The portion on poplars talks about how it was used to construct Christ's cross, and the leaves of the tree quiver when they remember this fact. There are many other interesting looks at some mythology of the plants this sight lists.
mongobay.com. .
this is a interesting article that discusses the use of the The acacia tree Faidherbia albida.this tree is being researched for use in rasing the crop yield, without the use of expensive conventional fertilizer. The article explains how the nitrogen rich leaves fall at a time of year when they greatly incease the yields of crops.
http://plant-disease.ippc.orst.edu/articles.cfm?article_id=18
this site discusses the success of wound painting for trees. It starts by explainin the proper pruning techniuges and how this effects wound closure . it then discusses the types of paints that have been used including Petrolatum, latex paint, shellac, and asphalt compounds, wich did not promote wound closure. These did not inhibit wood discoloration and some wound dressings harmed trees. The site also says Cankers have also been associated with petroleum-based tree marking paints where solvents kill cambium tissue. The site then give some exeptions with trees that have seemed to benefit from wound paints to deture certain diseases such as Wound the susceptibility of Prunus spp. to Leucostoma spp., the pathogen causing a perennial canker disease of stone fruits, varied by time of year and that the application of shellac was beneficial in reducing infection. The site also discusses the use of fungicides on wounds but says that none have been approved.
http://www.edie.net/news/news_story.asp?id=5641
this is a brief article that discusses the beneficial relationship of some micorizaa and trees in combating the effects of acid rain, it discusses some spiecies wich can take up calcium with the help of these beneficial fungi.
http://nrs.fs.fed.us/people/ktsmith
this is a brief introduction to Kevin T. Smith. Whos research is focused on the response of trees to injury, infection, and environmental change. as well as change in soil chemistry due to acid rain. His Current research examines: the recovery of surviving trees following injury from fires, storms, and tree care practices, the applicability and limitations of dendrochemistry to provide markers of environmental change, and the role of the wood decay process to replenish essential elements to forest soils. He then says how this research is needed do to Mechanical injury, subsequent infection, and environmental change. The impact of these depends on the goals of forest management and wildlife conservation. He then lists his future research wich includes working to Improve application of information in tree rings to better understand the impacts of land use, climate, and disturbance on trees. Identifying indicators of physiological processes that contribute to tree mortality or recovery after disturbance or injury. Improve methods to communicate relevant science findings to practicing arborists, loggers, and foresters
http://www.treesaregood.com/treecare/avoiding_construction.aspx
this site give detailed explanations of a variety dangers trees face during construction as well as haw to best avoid them. The dangers are as follows Cutting of Roots. Soil Compaction.. Smothering Roots by Adding Soil. Exposure to the Elements, and physical damage.
Some of the suggestions given are bridging over the roots to substitute a conventional walkway. For utility installation, tunneling under the root system may be a good option. Barriers are good idea, and to Instruct construction personnel to keep the fenced area clear of building materials, waste, and excess soil.make it clear that No digging, trenching, or other soil disturbance should be allowed in the fenced area. These Protective fences should be erected as far out from the trunks as possible in order to protect the root system. If possible, its best to allow only one access route on and off the property. All contractors must be instructed where they are permitted to drive and park their vehicles. Often this same access drive can later serve as the route for utility wires, water lines, or the drivway. Specifications All of the measures intended to protect your trees must be written into the construction specifications. also Fines and penalties for violations should be built into the specifications. Maintaining Good Communications with the people doing the work is very important. Visiting the site at least once a day if possible is a good way to show you are sirios and to correct problems you see before its to late After this the site say how It is not unusual to go to great lengths to preserve trees during construction, only to have them injured during landscaping so you should always maintain a watch to preserve the trees.
http://forestry.about.com/od/arboriculture/ss/tree_dont_10.htm
this is a site that shows pictures of ten common things that people do to trees that are dedramental. I am not in complete agreement with the author about some of these thing ie staking and mulching but other than that it is quite informative and fun to look at.
This site talks very briefly about the development of tree crotches and the eco systems they create for microbial life forms it includes images of crotches that collect water creating the pool ecosystems were life can thrive. There is a small amount written about the trees that the author has found these pools the most common to as well as images of some of the life he has noted.
This is a instructional guide to pruning using the
Planting,
Establishment,
Growth,
Structure,
Maturity,
Over maturity,
Replacement
(PEGSMOR) pruning system it shows detailed pictures of Excurrent Trees and Decurrent Trees and gives a example of what steps are to be taken and when for the healthy development of a deciduous tree. It lists and shows pictures of when the best time to prune is as well as what each step of pruning entails. There is an image of a tree pruned since planting versus one that has not been pruned which shows the benefits for the structure and health of the tree that pruning affords. There is a section that discusses the pruning of older trees to maintain healthy growth. There is detailed explanation of terminology and a large amount of very useful and applicable information on the management of trees in an urban setting
http://www.springsgov.com/units/parksrec/treepruning.pdf
This site starts out by discussing the different kinds of wound that a tree can get, the different parts of the bark, and how it heals. It then says how trees heal differently from people and animals. In that unlike animals that regenerate and replace damaged cells trees simply isolate and encapsulate damage. Wounds also expose the inside of the tree to organisms, primarily bacteria and fungi that may infect and cause discoloration and decay. Trees can not heal decayed wood. It then discusses the process a tree goes thru in healing according to Shigo compartmentalization and the development of barrier zones. It later discusses the treatment of wounds on trees and the crazy things people do to try and fix them such as painting and cavity filling. It also discusses the best way to treat wounds as well as the best time to prune.
http://www.utextension.utk.edu/publications/spfiles/SP683.pdf
Allelopathy is a biological phenomenon that is characteristic of some plants, algae, bacteria, coral and fungi by which they produce certain biochemical’s that influence the growth and development of other organisms. This site offers a basic introduction to allelopathy both positive and negative allelopathy are briefly discussed as well as speculation that some invasive plants have been very successful because they have this characteristic. This article discusses the fact that allelopathy is something that is gaining a lot of interest in the scientific community. The site then goes on to mention the origin of the word and the history. The term allelopathy, from the Greek words allelo and pathy (meaning mutual harm or suffering). Before the term allelopathy was used, people observed the negative effects that one plant could have on another. Theophrastus noticed the inhibitory effects of pigweed on alfalfa. In China around the first century A.D. Yang and Tang described 267 plants that had pesticide abilities, including those with allelopathic effects. The site then talks about some of the plants that have this characteristic and its potential for agriculture as natural herbicides. As well as mentioning that it is a very important part of forest ecology.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allelopathy
- Roots grow around basket wire, forming a complete union of bark and wood tissue; roots are not permanently girdled.
- Root tissue formed after growing over wire permits translocation.- There appears to be no injury to, or break in, the root periderm that would allow pathogens to enter a tree.
- Basket wire remains intact in soil for many years, and wire strength diminishes slowly.
- Removing wire baskets at planting time is not necessary to assure growth and survival of large tree roots. However, you should remove any rope across the top of the ball, and bend back or remove basket loops.
This site contains the opinion of Dr. Glen P. Lumis professor of landscape horticulture in the department of horticultural science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario. About the effects of wire baskets being left on trees when they are planted. There is numerous examples of studies that he has done on the subject as well as some mention of people who are against this practice and have found that they feel that baskets left on are detrimental to the health of the tree. The conclusions that Dr. Glen P. Lumis has come to are as follows.
- Roots grow around basket wire, forming a complete union of bark and wood tissue; roots are not permanently girdled.
- Root tissue formed after growing over wire permits translocation.
- There appears to be no injury to, or break in, the root periderm that would allow pathogens to enter a tree.
- Basket wire remains intact in soil for many years, and wire strength diminishes slowly.
- Removing wire baskets at planting time is not necessary to assure growth and survival of large tree roots. However, you should remove any rope across the top of the ball, and bend back or remove basket loops. - Using a correctly sized basket for each root ball is imperative. The top horizontal wire should be at least several inches above the top of the soil ball.
http://www.marshalltrees.com/articles.asp?p=2&id=4&cid=0
This article discusses the different uses of custructural soil, its water absorption rate and it also answers many common question such as price how it will were over time and many others. Cu structural soil was created so the soil compaction needed for paving could be achieved and still allow tree roots to easily penetrate the area. It does this by combining crushed stone approximately one inch in diameter, with no finer particles, loam to clay loam that contained at least 20% clay to maximize water and nutrient holding capacity. The proportion of soil to stone is approximately 80% stone to 20% soil by dry weight, with a small amount of hydrogel aiding in the uniform blending of the two materials. This proportion ensured that each stone touched another stone, creating a rigid lattice or skeleton, while the soil almost filled the large pore spaces that were created. This way, when compacted, the load would be born from stone to stone, and the soil in between the stones would remain uncompacted. Along with information about this product and answers to common questions there are pictures and information about various sites around Ithaca n y.
http://www.hort.cornell.edu/uhi/outreach/csc/city_trees.pdf
This is a site that is designed to help people recognize seven main types of tree defects: dead wood, cracks, weak branch unions, decay, cankers, root problems, and poor tree architecture. It then describes when people should fix a problem and when it can be left for future correction and assessments. It lets people know how to recognize each one of the seven defects and gives information on how to safely correct them the easiest being to move the potential target. It also shows some pictures to help people understand what it describes.
http://www.pueblo.gsa.gov/cic_text/housing/treedefect/hazards.htm
This is a site that discusses three methods for pruning over grown fruit trees that have been neglected for a long time these trees can be found in many yards in New England as well as any were with agricultural roots. The site lists three methods for pruning. The first is to keep the height the same and do mostly thinning cuts removing crossing branches, sucker growth, and thinning to allow better light penetration and reduce the amount of fruit. The second method is to over three years reduce the height of the tree assessing and picking the height that you would like the tree to be then reducing by one third of the total to be removed every year. The third is to greatly reduce the tree cutting back all branches except one this method is not very recommended by the authors. All three methods call for pruning in early April and thinning of sucker growth. The site say to paint to prevent sun burn something that is very disputed other than this and the third method this site gives great basics for maximizing existing trees that may be neglected or even a nuisance to the owner.
http://homeorchard.ucdavis.edu/8058.pdf
This site discusses three of the dominant types of micorizea in forests, particularyily in giant red wood forests. It gives a description of each of the three different types discussing, their fruit bodies , growth habits, relationships to trees and were they are likely found. This site is a great way to start to understand the whole picture of a codependent environment. It discusses experiments to test tree growth with and without inoculation and found that giant red wood seedlings inoculated often grew three times the amount of those not. The site also talks about the importance of animals in the forest as well and their relationship to the fungi and trees.
http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/documents/psw_gtr151/psw_gtr151_12_molina.pdf
This site discusses briefly the allelopathic ability of mangrove trees as well as giving some info on the nature of this plant. It then goes on to suggest that mangroves allelopathic compounds may be useful in suppressing the growth of tumors, parasites and bacterial or fungal infections in people. It gives a list of some of the folk remedies that people use the plant for already. The article concludes by saying there is a lot of hope for medicinal uses but further research is needed.
http://www.wholehealth.com/resources/Medicinal_Properties_of_M.pdf
PAMELA HARTFORD
Three approaches - from different perspectives – each one demonstrating how informed observation increases our appreciation for trees.
Feininger, Andreas. Trees. 168 pp, b&w photographs. New York: Rizzoli, 1991. (paperback edition)
This book offers a broad appreciation of trees by combining engaging writing with exquisite, carefully edited black and white photographs. From the role of trees in the ecosystem to the role of leaves in photosynthesis, Feininger’s informative narrative describes the processes and purpose of the component tree parts which he has beautifully documented. The use of terminology, italicized throughout, makes this a comprehensive tree textbook, but Feininger’s real agenda is to advocate. He uses full page evocative photographs to promote aesthetic appreciation, while employing drawings as teaching tools, as when he creates drawings of fifteen leaves photographed from one white oak tree to demonstrate the variety of leaf shape found in a single specimen.
Feininger is a well known (and much published) photographer; here his writing is more eloquent than his photography, and I learned a lot, eagerly. A coda on the difficulties of photographing trees put the project in perspective.
Levine, Carol. “Twig and Leaf Phyllotaxy,” Newsletter of the Connecticut Botanical Society, Fall 2000 (Vol 28, No. 2 & 3)
Phyllotaxy is the name which describes the phenomenon of the three types of arrangements of leaves on twigs: opposite, alternate or whorled. But as Carol Levine methodically and lucidly reveals to us, the arrangement of alternately placed leaves - the distance and placement of each twig from the one preceding it - is not a random event, but the expression of recurring phenomenon of nature. She employs an observation of Leonardo da Vinci’s, to point out the purpose of the arrangements (“provides open space through which the sun & air may penetrate”) but also hint at the marvel of engineering underlying the alternate arrangement of leaves (“…drops from the first leaf fall on the fourth leaf in some case and on the sixth in others, but in other cases, falls on the sixth.”) Using very simple line drawings, Levine explains how the spiraling arrangement of leaves along a twig can be expressed in fractions, and those fractions, when mathematically sequenced, produce a universal ratio: the Golden Mean. In two pages, she makes an extremely complex mathematical formulation known as the Fibonacci Sequence comprehensible, relating it both to leaves and the many other instances in which this geometry of nature appears.
After reading this, I will need to add a small ruler to my field ID tool kit: an observation of alternate leaf arrangement will compel me to check out its ratio.
Klinkenborg, Verlyn. "Sorting the Trees in The Forest by Name." The New York Times, February 23, 1998.
Vintage Klinkenborg. Four paragraphs which elicit the warmth of recognition of a simple act, a universal feeling. Here, he acknowledges how good it feels to have at least the rudimentary ability to identify trees. He likens the feeling to his childhood learning of the stars and constellations - how much more interesting the sky was to him after those lessons. Likewise, the forest.
He summarizes both the reason for and result of, our pursuit: "There is no purer accession of knowledge than the one that transforms the character of your immediate environment. "
This annotated bibliography does a good job of explaing terminology I just touched upon.
Definition: the attribution of human "> characteristics to non-human creatures and beings, phenomena, material states and objects or abstract concepts. Examples include animals and plants depicted as creatures with human motivation able to reason and converse and forces of nature such as winds, rain or the sun. The term derives from the combination of the Greek (ánthr?pos), "human" and (morph?), "shape" or "form". Source: WIkipedia
Binomial classification
Definition: a system of classifying all living organisms which provides for a universally understood nomenclature to name and identity species, and variants within a species. Both species and variety name are presented in italicized Latin, the species capitalized. This system was invented by Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778), a Swedish botanist.
One measure of the success of Carl Linnaeus’s botanic classification system was the flourishing of botanical science during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century. The system of classification, applied to botany, categorized plants according to the number and position of the stamens and pistils of their flowers; its simplicity provided an accessible entry into the field of botany. Classifying and describing plants became an enterprise which could be undertaken by anyone with the passion to observe plants closely, and willingness to build a knowledge of botanical Latin, without requiring a Latin education. This science was eagerly embraced by cultivated women who lacked the extensive education of their brothers, but nevertheless yearned to immerse themselves in (socially approved) intellectuals pursuits. Joan Goodwin profiles the career of one such woman, Sarah Alden Bradford Ripley (1793 – 1867) whose close observations and enthusiasm for classifying led her to friendship with William Dandridge Peck, founding director of the Harvard Botanic Garden in Cambridge, and Asa Gray, founder of Harvard’s botany department and author of Gray’s Manual of the Botany of the United States.
Authority for the Binomial
Bailey, Liberty Hyde. Manuel of Cultivated Plants. New York: The Macmillan Company 1949, second revised edition.
The development of the binomial system of classification was built on establishing recognized and authoritatively named species and their varieties. Botanists, biologists and even passionate amateurs published findings, and these findings, unless disputed, represented the authoritative source for the named plant. In scientific /botanic writing, but not in popular writing, an abbreviation for the authority is often indicated, which then offers the reader some insight into when, by whom and where the plant was named. L. H. Bailey’s reference book contains a 16-page section of authorities, opening a window on yet another layer in the naming system of plants.
Examples:
Carpinus betula, L.
· L. Carolus Linnaeus (Carl von Linne). 1707-1778, the “Father of Botany” and author of binomial nomenclature. Sweden.
Fagus americana, Sweet
· Sweet. Robert Sweet, 1783-1835, British horticulturist and botanist.
"Cultivar"
Spongberg, Stephen, “A Sourcebook of Cultivar Names,” Arnoldia, Vol. 54, number 4, 1994-1995. Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University.
The binomial system was developed for naming naturally occurring varieties of known species. Subsequent to Linneas, the growth of the horticultural industry led to the naming of selected naturally occurring varieties within the classification system, ie: Carpinus betula ‘Fastigiata.” In his introduction to this special edition of Arnoldia, Spongberg explains that the explosion in propagation for agricultural and ornamental purposes led to confusion in distinguishing “naturally selected varieties" and "cultivated varieties." In 1953 the term “cultivar” was officially adopted along with rules governing the naming of cultivars (employing a vernacular rather than Latin epithet). This naming system formally separated cultivated varieties from the rules governing the naming of botanical taxa. Additionally, this “cultivation code” established registries to serve as clearing houses for monitoring the use of cultivar names. Buyer beware: there may in fact be some notable difference between Carpinus betula ”Fastigiata” and Carpinus betula “Frans Fontaine.”
Example of anthropomorphism:
Joyce Kilmer, American poet (1886-1918). Author of a widely known poem, The Tree (1913) that pays anthropomorphic tribute to trees. He equates the tree, animate object of nature, with a creation by God on equal standing with humans by anthropomorphizing its features (a hungry mouth, leafy arms, hair) and giving it human actions ( that looks at God, that prays). The poem’s simple and direct language invites frank admiration of the nobility of trees, and implies that they are a divine creation, greater than any creative act by a man.
I think that I shall never see
A poem lovely as a tree.
A tree whose hungry mouth is prest
Against the sweet earth's flowing breast;
A tree that looks at God all day,
And lifts her leafy arms to pray;
A tree that may in summer wear
A nest of robins in her hair;
Upon whose bosom snow has lain;
Who intimately lives with rain.
Poems are made by fools like me,
But only God can make a tree.
This poem received wide acclaim during the early part of the 20th century when the conservation movement was building momentum. The broad exposure of this poem helped raise awareness of trees, and consequently, forests. In tribute, a Wilderness area in Tennessee was names after Kilmer - Joyce Kilmer Slick Rock Wilderness.
Whittmann, Christine, and Hardy Pfanz. “Temperature dependency of bark photosynthesis in beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) and birch (Betula pendula Roth.) trees.” Institute of Applied Botany, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany. Journal of Experimantal Botany, 2007.
This research examines how temperature affects the two processes which contribute to stem carbon balance: stem respiration and bark photosynthesis. Using two deciduous trees which have very different temperature and light requirements/preferences (Fagus sylvatica and Betula pendula), the outcome of this research reveals temperature dependency for maintaining stem carbon balance, and the important role bark photosynthesis plays during times when leaf photosynthesis of deciduous trees is decreasing or non-existent to balance (offset) respiration. The research underscores the importance of bark photosynthesis to sten carbon balance. Sustained temperatures above 30 degrees Celsius led to a sustained imbalance between stem respiration and bark photosynthesis, because bark photosynthesis declines at high temperatures.
The short version: both species will have problems as global temperatures rise.
Peter H. Vermilye
"Plant Naming"
http://www.dgsgardening.btinternet.co.uk/naming.htm
How approved, Latinized, botanical names are used in the Linnaeus system is discussed. Within the orders plants are grouped into families with similar structure, Iridaceae, and then Genus, Iris, and then a Species, siberica. Every plant usually gets a species name descriptive of a feature or the country of origin or discoverer which is more distinct than common names which vary in different countries. Other accepted naming conventions include, the genus name can be shortened to a capital letter if it has already been use for another species, species may be subdivided using the designation subsp. or ssp., due to growing conditions variations arise in species named as var. and usually a Latinized name written in italics. A variation in species due to breeding is called cultivar, cv., usually not Latinized, in standard type and capitalized. Hybridization between two species is noted by an “x” between the species names. Note: in print, ssp., var., syn., etc. are in standard type not in italics. Examples are given as to why names change how the names were used within the rose species. -PV
“Tree Wound Closure,” Dan Neely, Presented at Symposium on Systemic Chemical Treatments in Tree Culture at Michigan State University, East Land
sing, Oct 1987
http://www.utextension.utk.edu/publications/spfiles/SP683.pdf
The process by which tree wounds are healed is described as well as the time the wounds took to heal in several studies where chemicals were injected into different trees. The paper states that plant propagators have observed the reactions of plants where cuttings are removed. They have noted that the “callus” which result initially are non-distinct parenchyma cells but with age change into xylem, vascular cambium, phloem, and outer bark. Shigo was cited as having observed that closure was a minor part of the wound response. However the paper goes on the discuss factors affecting the time it takes for the “callus” to close the wound and the processes involved. From May through July “callus” is produced readily due to active flow of sap, but not at other times. Dieback of tissue around the wound before the “callus” builds is discussed, being greater if pruned in the fall compared to other seasons. -PV
“Tree wounds: Response of Trees and What You Can Do,” Wayne Clatterback, University of Tennessee, Dept. of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries, UT Extension
http://www.utextension.utk.edu/publications/spfiles/SP683.pdf How trees respond to wounding/pruning by compartmentalizing the injury and creating barrier zones is described in general terms. Shigo (1982) is quoted “Trees are generating organisms while animals are regenerating organism.” Trees first isolate their healthy parts from the outside by creating “callus” tissue around the edge of the wound gradually adding new healthy tissue. A barrier zone is the trees second line of defense, where it attempts to make the exposed wood less accessible to decay organisms which works well for most otherwise healthy, actively growing trees. Recommended procedures for physical repair (i.e., cutting off ragged bark edges with a sharp knife, cutting damaged bark to leave an oval opening), wound dressing (not helpful), cavity filling for cosmetic reasons, “fillings may give callus material a place to seat, stopping the in-roll (folding) of the callus (Shigo 1992)”, but must be done very carefully). Finally best practice pruning techniques are summarized. -PV
"Bark Ecology"
http://www.ecology.info/article.aspx?cid=10&id=45
The current understanding of structure, function and uses of inner bark, outer bark, bark chemistry and functions are explored. The role of bark in transporting photosynthates, proteins and RNA through sieve elements in the phloem is mentioned as is the role of growth increments in making height growth possible and flexible strength in protecting against temperature fluctuations. Bark in some species can be important for storing carbohydrates, nitrogen and water. Finally the ability of trees to use photosynthetic cortical, epidermal or inner bark on twigs and young shoots more common than larger stems is mentioned. Some trees like Betula, Birch trees have photosynthetic bark tissues with abundant lenticels where as some like Populus have photosynthesis occurring in cortical tissues.–PV
‘Plant the Right Tree in the Right Place,’ U. Tenn. Agricultural Extension
Donna C. Fare, Wayne K. Clatterbuck http://www.utextension.utk.edu/publications/spfiles/SP511.pdf
The reasons trees are planted and the importance of evaluating soil conditions, often overlooked, are discussed. Certain trees thrive in PH levels above or below the norm, in damper, more compact soil or dryer airier soils. A list of trees of small, medium and large mature size is provided. Some trees may get too big for a yard, but the size given its growth rate may be fine for the first 50 years. Yellow popular (tulip tree) is used as an example of tree reaching 100 ft at maturity. A list of short lived , under 50 yrs, i.e. Norway maple, medium i.e. Red Maple, to 100 yrs and long lived trees, ex. Beech is provided. Shade tolerance is discussed with maples and beech trees preferring partial shade, pines require full, others like white oak are in between. Undesirable traits are covered including pests, fruiting and maintenance, including week wood and crotches. -PV
‘Shagbark Hickory Trees; Growing Shagbark Hickory in the Landscape’
David Beaulieu
http://landscaping.about.com/od/fallfoliagetrees/a/hickory_trees.htm
An indigenous N. American species grow in zones 4-8. They like full or part sun and can grow to 130 ft, but usually reach only 70ft. Normally slow growers, but several cultivars are available, such as ‘Abundance’, ‘Grainger’ and ‘Yoder, using grafting to improve the growth rate. Grafted trees produce much sooner and are designed to give the best nuts. These trees are grown for fine fall color, more golden then maples, interesting exfoliating bark and edible, fragrant nuts. The bark peals and curves out from one or both ends providing interesting winter scenery. The trees have a long tap root, so are not easy to transplant. -PV
'Formation of Barks-Fundamental role of Barks'
http://www.artsylva.com/site_eng/biologie.html
The role of bark, often overlooked, in identifying species and varieties of trees is discussed. Some of the large diversity of barks developed by trees to improve their survival is described, including Brachychiton rupestris which has photosynthetic bark that helps when their leaves drop off during dry seasons. Giant redwood and paper bark tree bark is resistant to fire. A list of 14 different tree bark physical appearance types is presented with examples of trees having those characteristics. Bark types included ‘Smooth and uniform’ (Fagus sylvatica), ‘Smooth bark coming off ribs’ (Acer griseum and Arbutus andrachne), ‘smooth, stripping off in plaques’ (Platanus x acerifolia and Pinus bungeana), ‘Bark with horizontal sections’, ‘Bark with shallow fissures’ (Acer davidii), ‘Bark with many furrows’ (Quercus robur), ‘Corky bark’ (Quercus suber), ‘Bark with lenticels’ (Betula utils, Prunus serula and Populus alba) as well as other bark types. Attractive photograph gallery of barks of different colors are also provided. -PV
“Pruning,” Liz Toffey http://liztoffey.com/writer/pruning.shtml
This good introductory essay talks about how trees respond to injury, how and when they should be pruned. The concept of static and dynamic mass of trees which change as they age. Older trees have a much harder time recovering from injury/pruning as most of their energy is used to sustain their static mass. Heavy pruning later in life can not rejuvenate an older tree. Symptoms of infection/rot are mentioned along with advice on how to treat the area. Recommended pruning techniques for trees and shrubs are discussed. Prune trees at the end of their dormant cycle or soon after their leaves have matured if were not able to prune in winter. -PV
“Why Trees Fail During Ice Storms, “ Richard J. Hauer, Les P. Werner, Jeffery O. Dawson, U. Wisconsin, U. Illinois presentation to International Society of Arboriculture, St. Louis, MA, July 26, 2008
http://www.uwsp.edu/cnr/forestry/faculty/hauer/Files/Publications/
The cost of damage due to ice storms is high. Trees with weak branch junctures with included bark, dead branches, broad crowns and fine branching are most vulnerable to injury which can cause significant damage to utility lines, agriculture, businesses and personal property. Other factors which can affect a tree's vulnerability include unbalanced crowns, restricted and unbalanced or shallow root systems. A vulnerable tree, ‘Bradford’ callery pear is cited and a less vulnerable choice of pear tree ‘Aristocrat, which does not form included branches. Trees that are susceptible because of their architectural structure include; Siberian elm, American elm, hackberry, green ash and honey locust. Trees with course branching structure such as; black walnut, catalpa, Kentucky coffee tree and sweet gum are less susceptible. Trees with a conical form, such as spruce, bald cypress, larch and ginkgo hold up better as do trees with strong wood and smaller trees such as ironwood, blue beach and service berry. An ice load index table, map of country with average days of freezing rain and drawing of weak tree characteristics is provided. -PV
“Prioritizing Risk Trees in a Community,” Brian Kane, Dr. H. Dennis, P. Ryan and Dr. David V. Blonairz, Tree Care Industry July 2001
Tree hazards and how to minimize legal liability are covered in detail. Prioritize the risk based on the type of defect or damage, the proximity to objects and structural strength of the genus. A reasonable systematic process followed on a regular basis can significantly reduce potential liability. Recommendations are given for the inspection time and process. Branches less than 2” in diameter as per ANSII 300 are not considered a hazard. Weak crotches, stem and branch defects and suggestions for appraising them are given. A decay threshold of 30% strength loss may not be reached unless some trees are as much as 70% hollow. Symptoms of root damage showing up on the crown or general tree health included chlorosis, bleeding wounds, loose pealing bark, cracks extending up to stem from soil line are mentioned as well as how to evaluate a leaning tree. An assessment rating system is discussed with a sample evaluation form included. -PV
"Allelopathic Plants: Lone Killers"
http://desertwaterwisegardens.suite101.com/article.cfm/allelopathic_plants_loner_plants
The effect some plants have on other plants by their proximity and allelopathic capability discussed. Some are indiscriminant while others discrimate. The chemicals they use can affect the other plant’s respiration, interfere with cell division and seed germination, affect the plants ability to use water and nutrients, prevent it’s becoming established, reduce a plants growth or even kill it. Their chemicals are mostly spread through the soil and can be affected by drainage, aeration and temperature, but may also be dispersed in the air in some cases. A list of plants including, Salt Cedars, Sugar Maple, Hackberry, Eucalyptus, Black Walnut, Jumpier, Sycamore, Oaks, Sassafras, Balsam Popular, Laurel, Manzanita, Bearberry, Elderberry and Forsythia intermedia, that have Allelopathic properties and the other plants they attack is included. -PV
“Why Leaves Change Color”
http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/misc/leaves/leaves.htm
As daylight gets shorter and nights cooler plants begin to shutdown photosynthesis removing the green pigment that dominates color in most tree leaves. The color that remains is caused by caroteniods (yellow, orange, brown) and anthocyanins becoming more prominent. Certain trees have primary fall colors such as Oaks (red or brown), hickories (golden bronze) , aspen and golden-popular (golden yellow), beech (light tan) and maples (which vary with species from red to orange to yellow). Temperature improves colors when warm sunny days and cool, not freezing nights as sugars are produced in the leaves, but cool nights prevent it from moving out. Moisture in the ground over the year also affect the intensity of color. A wet spring, good summer weather without drought can produce most intense colors if fall nights are cool. -PV
"Tree MORPHOLOGY & Diagnosis"
Originally published in essential arb Magazine issue 16 by Andrew Cowen and Neville Fay March 2006
http://www.treeworks.co.uk/seminars/seminar5review.php Aging and morphology in trees is discussed using ideas from work of Pierre Rauimbault first introduced in 1995 identifying ten different stages of tree life cycles. He uses the concept of ‘plant memory’ to identify current stresses and traumatic occurrences in the trees growth history. During the first five stages from seedling to early maturity apical dominance suppresses lateral branch development, shaping the crown and optimizing leaf exposure to light. In stages six through eight apical dominance is reduced leading to a more rounded crown, ‘abaxial mortality’ occurs , dysfunctional branch tissue leads to fungal colonization and ‘basifungal mortality’. In stage eight the roots retract and some decay may happen in the lower trunk and some trees may die. However in stages 9 the crown contracts, the tree conserves its resources and may be reborn, living much longer in stage ten with proper care in earlier stages. -PV
‘Treating soil compaction near trees,’ Grounds Maintenance
Dr. E. Thomas Smiley, Bartlett Tree
http://grounds-mag.com/mag/grounds_maintenance_treating_soil_compaction/
Forty percent of properties have a real problem with soil compaction around trees a survey of arborists reported recently. In the past grounds managers had few options, but recently it has become easier to try and treat the problem. The causes and effect of compaction on soil is discussed. Traditional methods ‘drill-hole soil replacement’ and ‘compressed-air treatments’ are discussed along with a European technique, ‘Radial-trench soil replacement’. ‘Soil cultivation’ is discussed for newly planted trees having trouble establishing themselves. The benefits of irrigation using moisture sensing device and mulching are covered. Finally trees stressed by compaction and inadequate water can be targets for pest and may be too far gone to save, which would suggest more regular monitoring. -PV
‘Planting and After Care of Community Trees”, Penn State U.
http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/freepubs/pdfs/uh143.pdf
This thirty-two page booklet explains the importance of understanding the environment of the planting location, tolerances and growth tendencies of tree species when planning to plant new trees. How to evaluate nursery stock to pick the best specimen is covered. Recommendations for best techniques for planting trees in a spacious spaces and also sidewalks and harsh environments are given. Do not plant trees that require good areation like flowering cherry, magnolia, serviceberry or sugar maple. Sycamore, honeylocust, flowering pear and thornless hawthorn are more tolerant. Limestone gravel in sidewalks can increase soil acidity. Trees not recommended under these conditions are red oak, pin oak, sweetgum or red maple and other trees not tolerating acid soil. Designs for shared sidewalk plantings space and cluster planting are documented as well as benefits of raised planters. The use of adjacent area covered with porous tops as well as structured soil are mentioned. -PV
‘Water Your Trees’, City of Mason OH 2009
http://www.imaginemason.org/home.php?ID=531
Drought conditions can cause irreparable damage to trees, not killing them quickly, but leading to secondary insect and disease damage later. Every 18 degree temperature doubles the amount of water lost in the ground. Advice is given on where, when, "10pm to 8am ... trees relieve water deficits at night", how (deeply, but not below one foot) and how much (2-5 years old need extra) and older trees, (avoid watering closer than three feet from the trunk base.) Some watering guidelines are: use ten gallons of water for every inch of tree diameter once or twice a week during dry spells, 5 x tree diameter is recommended time to water and at medium pressure it takes 5 minutes to product ten gallons. -PV
'Trees and Turf', International Society of Arboriculture. 2005 updated
http://www.treesaregood.com/treecare/trees_turf.aspx
Discusses issues involved in integrating trees into an established lawn. An effort should be made when planning a yard to make sure trees selected and grass are compatible. Most grass will not grow well if get less than 50% light, but varieties are available which do better in shade. Shallow topsoil or composted clay soil are made even less habitable to other plants when tree selected has shallow roots. Trees selected should have a small open canopy if grass is desirable. Competition between trees and lawn needs to be given serious consideration when transplanting trees, seeding or sodding grasss. To establish a healthy equilibrium sod may need to be removed or lower tree branches pruned. The benefits of mulching and maintenance and concerns such as fertilizing and herbicide treatment are discussed. -PV
‘Tree Invasive Exotics: Trees That Make Americas Lest Wanted List’, Steve Nix
http://forestry.about.com/cs/royalpaulownia/a/invasive_tree.htm
Invasive exotics are trees that are known to cause economic or environmental harm and are not native to local ecosystems where it out competes/smothers most native plants or can harm human health. The seven trees considered most harmful include: black locust (Robinia pseudoccia), chinaberrytree (Melia azedarach), mimosa (Albizia julibrissin Durazz), royal paulownia, tallow tree (Triadica sebifera), tree-of-heaven, TOH, (Ailanthus altissima, aka “stinking sumac”) and white poplar (Populus alba L.). TOH likes full sun and is found along road sides and fences, found growing two miles away from nearest seed source. White poplar is strong competitor in sunny areas, as grows in many soil types, produces many seeds and re-sprouts easily if damaged. -PV
‘A Gardener’s Guide to Fertilizing Trees and Shrubs, ’
http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/consumer/factsheets/trees-new/text/fertilizing.html This detailed guide lists common symptoms of poor growth which are most often related to causes other than lack of nutrients. Fertilizer will not help and may even hurt plants if the underlying problem is not resolved and should not be applied yearly. Instructions on soil testing and best times to fertilize new plants are included. Advice on how and if to fertilize are given based on growth rate, age and type of plant/location along with general guidelines and time and method of application. If fertilizer spikes are driven into the ground very little comes into contact with roots as lateral movement of fertilizer in the soil is very limited. Surface applications of soluble fertilizer works best in most cases, but if soil is compacted 4 to 6 inch holes may be useful to distribute nutrients. -PV
‘The Response of Native and Naturalized Trees to Construction Activity’, Ohio State Ag. Extension
T. Davis Sydnor, Joseph F. Boggs, Mary Ann Rose
http://ohioline.osu.edu/sc152/sc152_12.html People love trees and may pay 10 to 30% more to get a wooded lot and think of trees as indestructible. However a trees natural environment may be altered significantly when construction begins and damage may not be evident for three to eight years, making it hard to point to the cause. Trees have to try and adapt to the changes and some do better than others. Problems described include; changed drainage patterns, debris left in soil, grade changes, modified soil composition, soil saturation, competition from new vegetation, increased light from cleared areas, temperature changes, removing micronutrients, increased insect and disease vulnerability due to stress and reduced root zones. A table is provided listing many native and naturalized trees notes on their observed performance and adaptability to construction in Ohio.-PV
‘The value of Trees to a Community”
http://www.arborday.org/trees/benefits.cfm Cites estimated of economic benefits associated to trees from a variety of sources including USDA, American Public Power, Tree and Landscape Appraisers, National Wildlife Association and medical profession. Possible benefits of landscaping are reduced air conditioning costs by up to 50%, a tree planted on West side of house reducing energy by 3% up to 12% in 15 years and a mature tree can add from $1000 to $10,000 to appraised value of home. One acre of forest takes in six tons of carbon dioxide, trees can stimulate business, the nations street trees have an estimated value of $525 apiece, and visual exposure to trees significantly reduces stress in lab tests. -PV
‘Landscape Tree Appraisal’, U. Nebraska Ag. Extension
http://agweb.okstate.edu/fwa/PublicationLandscapeTreeAppraisal.htm
Discusses accepted methods used by professional tree appraisers. Appraisal methods include; comparable sales (done by real estate appraiser), value loss to property (fair market value of property less percentage of value of landscaping) and reasonable restoration. Included is a table of species with ratings based on geographic area, ability of tree to adapt to area and species desirability in landscape. In some cases specific cultivars are listed which decrease the appraisal rating of the tree, such as “Bradford” callery pear and non-disease resistant crabapples. In some cases a trunk formula method may be used, $26 multiplied times the trunk “area” at six inches above ground. -PV
Peter V.
“Tree wounds: Response of Trees and What You Can Do,” Wayne Clatterback, University of Tennessee, Dept. of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries, UT Extension
http://www.utextension.utk.edu/publications/spfiles/SP683.pdf
This factsheet discusses in simple terms how trees respond to wounding/pruning by compartmentalizing the injury and creating barrier zones. Shigo (1982) is paraphrased “Trees are generating organisms while animals are regenerating organism.” Trees first isolate their healthy parts from the outside by creating “callus” tissue around the edge of the wound gradually adding new healthy tissue. A barrier zone is the trees second line of defense, where it attempts to make the exposed wood less accessible to decay organisms which works well for most otherwise healthy, actively growing trees. Finally recommended procedures for physical repair (i.e., cutting off ragged bark edges with a sharp knife, cutting damaged bark to leave an oval opening), wound dressing (not helpful), cavity filling for cosmetic reasons, (“fillings may give callus material a place to seat, stopping the in-roll (folding) of the callus (Shigo 1992)”, but must be done very carefully) and proper pruning techniques are summarized.
“Tree Wound Closure,” Dan Neely, Presented at Symposium on Systemic Chemical Treatments in Tree Culture at Michigan State University, East Landsing, Oct 1987
http://www.utextension.utk.edu/publications/spfiles/SP683.pdf
This paper describes the process by which tree wounds are healed and discusses the time the wounds took to heal in several studies where chemicals were injected into different Trees. Also two methods of branch pruning including branch removal “outside the branch collar as prescribed by Shigo” were tested using Oaks, Maples and Sycamores. Discussing how trees repair themselves the paper states that plant propagators have observed the reactions of plants where cuttings are removed. They have noted that the “callus” which result initially are non-distinct parenchyma cells but with age change into xylem, vascular cambium, phloem, and outer bark. Shigo was cited as having observed that closure was a minor part of the wound response. However the paper goes on the discuss factors affecting the time it takes for the “callus” to close the wound and the processes involved. From May through July “callus” is produced readily due to active flow of sap, but not at other times. Dieback of tissue around the wound before the “callus” builds is discussed, being greater if pruned in the fall compared to other seasons.
“Pruning,” Liz Toffey http://liztoffey.com/writer/pruning.shtml
This good introductory essay talks about how trees respond to injury, how and when they should be pruned. The concept of static and dynamic mass of trees which change as they age. Older trees have a much harder time recovering from injury/pruning as most of their energy is used to sustain their static mass. Heavy pruning later in life can not rejuvenate an older tree. Symptoms of infection/rot are mentioned along with advice on how to treat the area. Recommended pruning techniques for trees and shrubs are discussed. Prune trees at the end of their dormant cycle or soon after their leaves have matured if were not able to prune in winter.
“Why Trees Fail During Ice Storms, “ Richard J. Hauer, Les P. Werner, Jeffery O. Dawson, U. Wisconsin, U. Illinois presentation to International Society of Arboriculture, St. Louis, MA, July 26, 2008
http://www.uwsp.edu/cnr/forestry/faculty/hauer/Files/Publications/
The cost of damage due to ice storms is high. Trees with weak branch junctures with included bark, dead branches, broad crowns and fine branching are most vulnerable to injury which can cause significant damage to utility lines, agriculture, businesses and personal property. Other factors which can affect a tree's vulnerability include unbalanced crowns, restricted and unbalanced or shallow root systems.
A vulnerable tree, ‘Bradford’ callery pear is cited and a less vulnerable choice of pear tree ‘Aristocrat, which does not form included branches.
Trees that are susceptible because of their architectural structure include; Siberian elm, American elm, hackberry, green ash and honey locust. Trees with course branching structure such as; black walnut, catalpa, Kentucky coffee tree and sweet gum are less susceptible. Trees with a conical form, such as spruce, bald cypress, larch and ginkgo hold up better as do trees with strong wood and smaller trees such as ironwood, blue beach and service berry. An ice load index table, map of country with average days of freezing rain and drawing of weak tree characteristics is provided.
ZACHERY WESTALL
“Wood and Tree fungi: Biology, Damage, Protection and Use,” Olaf Schmidt, 2006
A tree may never fully “heal” from the prune but it has the ability to compartmentalize the injury so that decay and disease do not find their way to the heart wood. Wound wood, also known as a callus, is much like a scar on a human body, while not looking like the original bark or branch is forms a protective hardened layer. Callus mainly occurs at the vascular cambium level, but can be initiated in parenchyma cells, which are non specific cells, that synthesis and store organic matter within the tree. Originally, callus cells are non-distinct, but as they continue to divide and fill the space within the wound they are forced to assimilate into specific cells and layers which create xylem, vascular cambium, phloem, and even outer bark. Eventually the callus tissue seals and closes the wound completely.
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